Random access memory (RAM) is the best known form of computer memory. RAM is considered "random access" because you can access any memory cell directly if you know the row and column that intersect at that cell.
The opposite of RAM is serial access memory (SAM).
SAM stores data as a series of memory cells that can only be accessed sequentially (like a cassette tape). If the data is not in the current location, each memory cell is checked until the needed data is found. SAM works very well for memory buffers, where the data is normally stored in the order in which it will be used (a good example is the texture buffer memory on a video card). RAM data, on the other hand, can be accessed in any order.
Similar to a microprocessor, a memory chip is an integrated circuit (IC) made of millions of transistors and capacitors. In the most common form of computer memory, dynamic random access memory (DRAM), a transistor and a capacitor are paired to create a memory cell, which represents a single bit of data. The capacitor holds the bit of information -- a 0 or a 1 (see How Bits and Bytes Work for information on bits). The transistor acts as a switch that lets the control circuitry on the memory chip read the capacitor or change its state.
A capacitor is like a small bucket that is able to store electrons. To store a 1 in the memory cell, the bucket is filled with electrons. To store a 0, it is emptied. The problem with the capacitor's bucket is that it has a leak. In a matter of a few milliseconds a full bucket becomes empty. Therefore, for dynamic memory to work, either the CPU or the memory controller has to come along and recharge all of the capacitors holding a 1 before they discharge. To do this, the memory controller reads the memory and then writes it right back. This refresh operation happens automatically thousands of times per second.
This refresh operation is where dynamic RAM gets its name. Dynamic RAM has to be dynamically refreshed all of the time or it forgets what it is holding. The downside of all of this refreshing is that it takes time and slows down the memory.
Memory cells are etched onto a silicon wafer in an array of columns (bitlines) and rows (wordlines). The intersection of a bitline and wordline constitutes the address of the memory cell.
DRAM works by sending a charge through the appropriate column (CAS) to activate the transistor at each bit in the column. When writing, the row lines contain the state the capacitor should take on. When reading, the sense-amplifier determines the level of charge in the capacitor. If it is more than 50 percent, it reads it as a 1; otherwise it reads it as a 0. The counter tracks the refresh sequence based on which rows have been accessed in what order. The length of time necessary to do all this is so short that it is expressed in nanoseconds (billionths of a second). A memory chip rating of 70ns means that it takes 70 nanoseconds to completely read and recharge each cell.
Memory cells alone would be worthless without some way to get information in and out of them. So the memory cells have a whole support infrastructure of other specialized circuits. These circuits perform functions such as:
• Identifying each row and column (row address select and column address select)
• Keeping track of the refresh sequence (counter)
• Reading and restoring the signal from a cell (sense amplifier)
• Telling a cell whether it should take a charge or not (write enable)
Other functions of the memory controller include a series of tasks that include identifying the type, speed and amount of memory and checking for errors.
Static RAM uses a completely different technology. In static RAM, a form of flip-flop holds each bit of memory (see How Boolean Logic Works for details on flip-flops). A flip-flop for a memory cell takes four or six transistors along with some wiring, but never has to be refreshed. This makes static RAM significantly faster than dynamic RAM. However, because it has more parts, a static memory cell takes up a lot more space on a chip than a dynamic memory cell. Therefore, you get less memory per chip, and that makes static RAM a lot more expensive.
So static RAM is fast and expensive, and dynamic RAM is less expensive and slower. So static RAM is used to create the CPU's speed-sensitive cache, while dynamic RAM forms the larger system RAM space.
Memory chips in desktop computers originally used a pin configuration called dual inline package (DIP). This pin configuration could be soldered into holes on the computer's motherboard or plugged into a socket that was soldered on the motherboard. This method worked fine when computers typically operated on a couple of megabytes or less of RAM, but as the need for memory grew, the number of chips needing space on the motherboard increased.
The solution was to place the memory chips, along with all of the support components, on a separate printed circuit board (PCB) that could then be plugged into a special connector (memory bank) on the motherboard. Most of these chips use a small outline J-lead (SOJ) pin configuration, but quite a few manufacturers use the thin small outline package (TSOP) configuration as well. The key difference between these newer pin types and the original DIP configuration is that SOJ and TSOP chips are surface-mounted to the PCB. In other words, the pins are soldered directly to the surface of the board, not inserted in holes or sockets.
Memory chips are normally only available as part of a card called a module. You've probably seen memory listed as 8x32 or 4x16. These numbers represent the number of the chips multiplied by the capacity of each individual chip, which is measured in megabits (Mb), or one million bits. Take the result and divide it by eight to get the number of megabytes on that module. For example, 4x32 means that the module has four 32-megabit chips. Multiply 4 by 32 and you get 128 megabits. Since we know that a byte has 8 bits, we need to divide our result of 128 by 8. Our result is 16 megabytes!
History & EvolutionThe type of board and connector used for RAM in desktop computers has evolved over the past few years. The first types were proprietary, meaning that different computer manufacturers developed memory boards that would only work with their specific systems. Then came SIMM, which stands for single in-line memory module. This memory board used a 30-pin connector and was about 3.5 x .75 inches in size (about 9 x 2 cm). In most computers, you had to install SIMMs in pairs of equal capacity and speed. This is because the width of the bus is more than a single SIMM. For example, you would install two 8-megabyte (MB) SIMMs to get 16 megabytes total RAM. Each SIMM could send 8 bits of data at one time, while the system bus could handle 16 bits at a time. Later SIMM boards, slightly larger at 4.25 x 1 inch (about 11 x 2.5 cm), used a 72-pin connector for increased bandwidth and allowed for up to 256 MB of RAM.
From the top: SIMM, DIMM and SODIMM memory modules
As processors grew in speed and bandwidth capability, the industry adopted a new standard in dual in-line memory module (DIMM). With a whopping 168-pin or 184-pin connector and a size of 5.4 x 1 inch (about 14 x 2.5 cm), DIMMs range in capacity from 8 MB to 1 GB per module and can be installed singly instead of in pairs. Most PC memory modules and the modules for the Mac G5 systems operate at 2.5 volts, while older Mac G4 systems typically use 3.3 volts. Another standard, Rambus in-line memory module (RIMM), is comparable in size and pin configuration to DIMM but uses a special memory bus to greatly increase speed.
Many brands of notebook computers use proprietary memory modules, but several manufacturers use RAM based on the small outline dual in-line memory module (SODIMM) configuration. SODIMM cards are small, about 2 x 1 inch (5 x 2.5 cm), and have 144 or 200 pins. Capacity ranges from 16 MB to 1 GB per module. To conserve space, the Apple iMac desktop computer uses SODIMMs instead of the traditional DIMMs. Sub-notebook computers use even smaller DIMMs, known as MicroDIMMs, which have either 144 pins or 172 pins.
Most memory available today is highly reliable. Most systems simply have the memory controller check for errors at start-up and rely on that. Memory chips with built-in error-checking typically use a method known as parity to check for errors. Parity chips have an extra bit for every 8 bits of data. The way parity works is simple. Let's look at even parity first.
When the 8 bits in a byte receive data, the chip adds up the total number of 1s. If the total number of 1s is odd, the parity bit is set to 1. If the total is even, the parity bit is set to 0. When the data is read back out of the bits, the total is added up again and compared to the parity bit. If the total is odd and the parity bit is 1, then the data is assumed to be valid and is sent to the CPU. But if the total is odd and the parity bit is 0, the chip knows that there is an error somewhere in the 8 bits and dumps the data. Odd parity works the same way, but the parity bit is set to 1 when the total number of 1s in the byte are even.
The problem with parity is that it discovers errors but does nothing to correct them. If a byte of data does not match its parity bit, then the data are discarded and the system tries again. Computers in critical positions need a higher level of fault tolerance. High-end servers often have a form of error-checking known as error-correction code (ECC). Like parity, ECC uses additional bits to monitor the data in each byte. The difference is that ECC uses several bits for error checking -- how many depends on the width of the bus -- instead of one. ECC memory uses a special algorithm not only to detect single bit errors, but actually correct them as well. ECC memory will also detect instances when more than one bit of data in a byte fails. Such failures are very rare, and they are not correctable, even with ECC.
The majority of computers sold today use non0parity memory chips. These chips do not provide any type of built-in error checking, but instead rely on the memory controller for error detection.
The following are some common types of RAM:
• SRAM: Static random access memory uses multiple transistors, typically four to six, for each memory cell but doesn't have a capacitor in each cell. It is used primarily for cache.
• DRAM: Dynamic random access memory has memory cells with a paired transistor and capacitor requiring constant refreshing.
• FPM DRAM: Fast page mode dynamic random access memory was the original form of DRAM. It waits through the entire process of locating a bit of data by column and row and then reading the bit before it starts on the next bit. Maximum transfer rate to L2 cache is approximately 176 MBps.
• EDO DRAM: Extended data-out dynamic random access memory does not wait for all of the processing of the first bit before continuing to the next one. As soon as the address of the first bit is located, EDO DRAM begins looking for the next bit. It is about five percent faster than FPM. Maximum transfer rate to L2 cache is approximately 264 MBps.
• SDRAM: Synchronous dynamic random access memory takes advantage of the burst mode concept to greatly improve performance. It does this by staying on the row containing the requested bit and moving rapidly through the columns, reading each bit as it goes. The idea is that most of the time the data needed by the CPU will be in sequence. SDRAM is about five percent faster than EDO RAM and is the most common form in desktops today. Maximum transfer rate to L2 cache is approximately 528 MBps.
• DDR SDRAM: Double data rate synchronous dynamic RAM is just like SDRAM except that is has higher bandwidth, meaning greater speed. Maximum transfer rate to L2 cache is approximately 1,064 MBps (for DDR SDRAM 133 MHZ).
• RDRAM: Rambus dynamic random access memory is a radical departure from the previous DRAM architecture. Designed by Rambus, RDRAM uses a Rambus in-line memory module (RIMM), which is similar in size and pin configuration to a standard DIMM. What makes RDRAM so different is its use of a special high-speed data bus called the Rambus channel. RDRAM memory chips work in parallel to achieve a data rate of 800 MHz, or 1,600 MBps. Since they operate at such high speeds, they generate much more heat than other types of chips. To help dissipate the excess heat Rambus chips are fitted with a heat spreader, which looks like a long thin wafer. Just like there are smaller versions of DIMMs, there are also SO-RIMMs, designed for notebook computers.
• Credit Card Memory: Credit card memory is a proprietary self-contained DRAM memory module that plugs into a special slot for use in notebook computers.
• PCMCIA Memory Card: Another self-contained DRAM module for notebooks, cards of this type are not proprietary and should work with any notebook computer whose system bus matches the memory card's configuration.
• CMOS RAM: CMOS RAM is a term for the small amount of memory used by your computer and some other devices to remember things like hard disk settings -- see Why does my computer need a battery? for details. This memory uses a small battery to provide it with the power it needs to maintain the memory contents.
• VRAM: VideoRAM, also known as multiport dynamic random access memory (MPDRAM), is a type of RAM used specifically for video adapters or 3-D accelerators. The "multiport" part comes from the fact that VRAM normally has two independent access ports instead of one, allowing the CPU and graphics processor to access the RAM simultaneously. VRAM is located on the graphics card and comes in a variety of formats, many of which are proprietary. The amount of VRAM is a determining factor in the resolution and color depth of the display. VRAM is also used to hold graphics-specific information such as 3-D geometry data and texture maps. True multiport VRAM tends to be expensive, so today, many graphics cards use SGRAM (synchronous graphics RAM) instead. Performance is nearly the same, but SGRAM is cheaper.
How Much Do You Need?It's been said that you can never have enough money, and the same holds true for RAM, especially if you do a lot of graphics-intensive work or gaming. Next to the CPU itself, RAM is the most important factor in computer performance. If you don't have enough, adding RAM can make more of a difference than getting a new CPU!
If your system responds slowly or accesses the hard drive constantly, then you need to add more RAM. If you are running Windows XP, Microsoft recommends 128MB as the minimum RAM requirement. At 64MB, you may experience frequent application problems. For optimal performance with standard desktop applications, 256MB is recommended. If you are running Windows 95/98, you need a bare minimum of 32 MB, and your computer will work much better with 64 MB. Windows NT/2000 needs at least 64 MB, and it will take everything you can throw at it, so you'll probably want 128 MB or more.
Linux works happily on a system with only 4 MB of RAM. If you plan to add X-Windows or do much serious work, however, you'll probably want 64 MB. Mac OS X systems should have a minimum of 128 MB, or for optimal performance, 512 MB.
The amount of RAM listed for each system above is estimated for normal usage -- accessing the Internet, word processing, standard home/office applications and light entertainment. If you do computer-aided design (CAD), 3-D modeling/animation or heavy data processing, or if you are a serious gamer, then you will most likely need more RAM. You may also need more RAM if your computer acts as a server of some sort (Web pages, database, application, FTP or network).
Another question is how much VRAM you want on your video card. Almost all cards that you can buy today have at least 16 MB of RAM. This is normally enough to operate in a typical office environment. You should probably invest in a 32-MB or better graphics card if you want to do any of the following:
• Play realistic games
• Capture and edit video
• Create 3-D graphics
• Work in a high-resolution, full-color environment
• Design full-color illustrations
When shopping for video cards, remember that your monitor and computer must be capable of supporting the card you choose.
How to Install RAM
Most of the time, installing RAM is a very simple and straightforward procedure. The key is to do your research. Here's what you need to know:
• How much RAM you have
• How much RAM you wish to add
• Form factor
• RAM type
• Tools needed
• Warranty
• Where it goes
RAM is usually sold in multiples of 16 megabytes: 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, 512, 1024 (which is the same as 1GB). This means that if you currently have a system with 64 MB RAM and you want at least 100 MB RAM total, then you will probably need to add another 64 MB module.
Once you know how much RAM you want, check to see what form factor (card type) you need to buy. You can find this in the manual that came with your computer, or you can contact the manufacturer. An important thing to realize is that your options will depend on the design of your computer. Most computers sold today for normal home/office use have DIMM slots. High-end systems are moving to RIMM technology, which will eventually take over in standard desktop computers as well. Since DIMM and RIMM slots look a lot alike, be very careful to make sure you know which type your computer uses. Putting the wrong type of card in a slot can cause damage to your system and ruin the card.
You will also need to know what type of RAM is required. Some computers require very specific types of RAM to operate. For example, your computer may only work with 60ns-70ns parity EDO RAM. Most computers are not quite that restrictive, but they do have limitations. For optimal performance, the RAM you add to your computer must also match the existing RAM in speed, parity and type. The most common type available today is SDRAM.
Additionally, some computers support Dual Channel RAM configuration either as an option or as a requirement. Dual Channel means that RAM modules are installed in matched pairs, so if there is a 512MB RAM card installed, there is another 512 MB card installed next to it. When Dual Channel is an optional configuration, installing RAM in matched pairs speeds up the performance of certain applications. When it's a requirement, as in computers with the Mac G5 chip(s), the computer will not function properly without matched pairs of RAM chips.
Definitions of Random Access Memory on the Web:
• The place in a computer where the operating system, application programs, and data in current use are kept so that they can be quickly reached by the computer's processor.
• The memory in a computer that can be overwritten with new information repeatedly. It is erased when the computer is turned off.
• the space in the computer on which information is temporarily stored while the computer is on.
• The memory that is used to run applications and perform other necessary tasks while the computer is on. When the computer is turned off, all information in RAM is lost. When PC's were first introduced, they could address as much as 640K RAM. With the advent of X86 architecture and DOS upgrades, this barrier was broken and increased to 32Meg (32,000K) of RAM. Microsoft's Windows NT has promised to break this barrier and be able to address up to 32Gigs (32,000,000K) of RAM.
• Term used to identify a computer's main memory. The “Random” here means that any part of the memory can be directly accessed.
• A memory chip that stores data that can be edited and changed. It requires a continuous electrical charge. The 02R scenes memories and other libraries are stored in RAM. An internal backup battery provides the continuous charge. Contrast with ROM.
• The programmable area of the computer's memory that can be read from and written to (changed). All RAM locations are equally accessible at any time in any order. The components of RAM are erased when the computer is turned off.
• The working memory of the computer into which application programs can be loaded and executed.
• In computers, the main system memory, usually consisting of volatile memory (memory that loses its data when power is removed) solid-state chips. (Inglis & Luther, 1996)
• That part of a computer's memory which can both read (find and display) and write (record) information, and which can be updated or amended by the user; the largest part of a computer's memory, used to house and execute active program code.
• Memory modules on the motherboard containing microchips used to temporarily hold data and programs while the CPU processes both. Information in RAM is lost when the PC is turned off.
• Technology – computers – Digital bit recording devices
• A physical device for storing data for access by a system's CPU. Called random access because the CPU can access data anywhere on the memory at any time, rather than having to store and retrieve data sequentially. Data stored in RAM is usually only stored temporarily for use by the CPU, although some types of RAM will store data indefinitely. Common types of RAM include EDO, FPM, SDRAM, DDR and DDR2, among others.
• The main working memory of a computer in which program instructions and data are stored where they are directly accessible to the central processing unit (CPU). Often called read/write memory to distinguish from read-only memory.
• Data is streamed from the CD or DVD into the RAM so the console can use it to display objects in the game. It is called RAM, because it is always being "accessed" by the console to store important data for the game. Without RAM, today's games would be extremely slow.
• Data that can be read, changed or erased when called up from a computer's internal storage. When a computer has a lot of RAM (storage space for data), it is considered more powerful and can support faster, more visually true, and more complex software.
• In computers, semiconductor based memory that can be read or written by a microprocessor or other hardware devices.
• A temporary storage location in which the central processing unit (CPU) stores and executes its processes.
• The "conscious memory" of the computer. This is the memory the computer uses while it is running any program. This is specified in Megabytes (millions of characters), and 32 Megabytes should be considered a minimum for any computer. High-end computers intended for serious engineering problems (mechanical design, custom integrated circuit design) or large database handlers may need thousands of megabytes (Gigabytes) to meet performance goals. ...
• A memory device to which data can be written and read. It is normally volatile so data is lost when power is removed.
• The most common form of computer memory in which the CPU stores data that is currently in use. RAM is usually volatile memory, meaning that when the computer is turned off, crashes, or loses power it is lost. More RAM means faster processing.
• is a chip that connects to your motherboard. It loads and stores instructions from the operating system, Software, Games etc until the processor has the time to execute its next set of instructions. RAM is volatile and can only store information inside its self whilst there is power running through it. When talking about ram these common words come up 64MB 128MB 256MB 512MB these are storage capabilities 512MB being the industry standard at the present time.
• The semiconductor component of computers that store instructions and data currently being used.
• The amount of active digital storage in your computer, RAM must be relatively high to allow work with photographs.
• Computer storage in which the access time for an item of data is independent of the location of the data previously accessed.
• random-access memory: the most common computer memory which can be used by programs to perform necessary tasks while the computer is on; an integrated circuit memory chip allows information to be stored or accessed in any order and all storage locations are equally accessible
• Random Access Memory or RAM is a type of computer storage whose contents can be accessed in any order. This is in contrast to sequential memory devices such as magnetic tapes, discs and drums, in which the mechanical movement of the storage medium forces the computer to access data in a fixed order. It is usually implied that RAM can be both written to and read from, in contrast to Read-Only Memory or ROM. ...
